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MESMER |
BRAID |
CHARCOT |
LIEBEAULT |
BERNHEIM |
PAVLOV |
COUE |
JANET |
JAMES |
FREUD |
HULL |
HILGARDS |
ERICKSON |
ROSSI |
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HISTORICAL NOTE: Naming of Hypnosis
For many years, James Braid has been credited with giving the name, hypnosis. But modern historians have found that the term was used earlier. One person in France, Etienne Felix d'henin de Cuvilliers (1744-1844), wrote about it, calling the phenomenon hypnosis to distinguish it from the Mesmeric magnetizers.
Braid may have read these earlier French books and journals to come up with the term "hypnosis" in naming the phenomenon he was exploring. His first choice for the name was "neuro-hypnosis," based on his belief about the nature of the phenomena: that it always involved a change in the nervous system. "Neuro" referred to the nervous system, including the brain, spinal chord, and nerves extending through the body. "Hypnos" meant sleep. In Braid's words, "By the term neuro-hypnotism, then is to be understood nervous sleep, and for the sake of brevity, suppressing the prefix "neuro" by the term "hypnotism" will be understood as the state or condition of nervous sleep and "hypnotize," to induce nervous sleep."
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NEUROSCIENCE OF HYPNOSIS: Is Hypnosis an Altered State?
Generally, brain researchers have distinguished hypnosis from the normal waking state through distinct, recognizable changes that consistently take place in the brain during hypnosis. Hypnotized people have increased cognitive abilities, such as more focused attention and higher absorption, more effective processing of information, faster reaction times, and better access to imagination and imagery. Improved efficiency in brain activity can be observed in the unique patterns of activaton and inhibition of different parts of the brain. Evidence for hypnosis being a unique brain state comes from studies of ERP. The letters "ERP" stand for Event Related Potential, a measure used with EEG that gives a specific time interval between a stimulus and a response. The idea here is that the ERP might be a way of recognizing similar brain activities, like a signature of a thing that helps to identify it, for exmple, a person's handwriting. Hypnotic subjects in several studies were all found to have a characteristic ERP marker at P300, whereas the suggestion-only subjects did not. These findings were repeated in several different labs, leading to the conclusion that induction of hypnosis produces a distinctive brain response at a characteristic time.
Another bit of evidence is found in observing how hypnosis differs from everyday alert consciousness. Whe we are alert, our brains register gamma frequency on EEG measures. Some researchers have proposed that gamma frequency might be a neural correlate of consciousness. But when people are in trance, the gamma frequency tends to break down indicating that hypnosis is different from everyday ccnsciousenss. |
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